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Turkey
I. A Brief Description of the Turkish Higher Education System
The 1981 Constitutional change in the Republic of Turkey brought new
provisions to the higher education sector. Foremost among them was the
establishment of the Council of Higher Education (YOK) as a Constitutional
body, responsible for guiding important activities of higher education
institutions including planning, organization, governance, instruction
and research. Following 1981, higher education was completely unified
under the Council of Higher Education (YOK) leaving no room for governmental
intervention. In addition, provisions were made for non-profit foundations
to establish higher education institutions. The new higher education
law went into effect in 1981, and institutions were radically reorganized.
"Higher Education" in Turkey is defined as all post-secondary programs of at least two years duration. The system consists of universities and non-university institutions of higher education. Universities are composed of faculties offering bachelor's level, graduate and advanced professional programs. Attached to universities, as well, are affiliated, non-university entities providing two-year vocational programs. In 1999-2000 there were 387 bachelor's and 196 pre-bachelor's level programs operating in Turkish universities. Among the non-university institutions are also the police and military academies and colleges. In the 1997-1998 academic year, students in the non-university sector made up less than one percent of all undergraduate level students in higher education institutions.
The distance education program of Anadolu University offers two and four-year programs. This program has been greatly expanded in recent years, although entry remains competitive. Instruction is through printed materials, lectures broadcast on television, and some provision for student-teacher contact.
There are 53 state universities and 19 private universities in Turkey. Admissions to higher education is centralized and based on a nation-wide examination administered by the Student Selection and Placement Center (OSYM) every year. The center was established in 1974 and affiliated with the Council of Higher Education in 1981.
Turkey has achieved significant and accelerating improvements in access to higher education, especially since the 1970s. According to UNESCO data, the percentage of the relevant age cohort enrolled in higher education went from 4 percent in 1965 to 18 percent in 1995. And according to YOK data, the participation rate (including non-university sector) by 1998 had reached 25.5 percent.
As of 2000-2001, enrollment in the private universities accounts for only about 2.3 percent of the total. In the long run, private universities offer a way to meet increasing demand for higher education and to relieve some of the financial pressure on the government. In the near future, however, YOK estimates that enrollment in private universities will not exceed 10 percent of total enrollment, so the state universities will continue to carry the major burden of higher education in Turkey.
The numbers of students to be admitted to undergraduate programs (2-year and 4-6 year) are determined annually by the Council of Higher Education, upon the recommendations of universities. The Council, upon the recommendation of the Inter-university Council, determines the common course requirements of the programs. Universities are completely free to determine the rest of the curricula, all course contents, grading systems and degree requirements. Teaching methods and grading are prerogatives of the individual instructors.
Private universities are under the supervision of the Council of Higher Education and their programs must be regularly accredited. They have to conform to the basic academic requirements and structures set forth in the law. Apart from this, private universities are free to manage their own affairs according to the rules and regulations adopted by their boards of trustees (the majority of whom, in most cases, are lay members).
Prior to 1984, the public universities charged no tuition. Higher Education Law No.2547 introduced tuition to Turkish higher education starting with the 1984-85 academic year. Student and parental contribution to the costs of higher education in Turkey, as estimated in Table 1, has ranged from a low of 632 million Turkish Lira [$2802] to a "moderate" high of 1.2 billion TL ($6466]. These contributions represent only about 5 percent (in 1998) of the total revenues of state universities. Only 27 percent of the income from student and parental goes to the costs of instruction; the rest goes to meals, lodging, and medical services provided to the students, and to financing extracurricular activities. Tuition alone ranges from a low of about 12 million Lira [$65] to a high of 118 million [$636]; Thus, tuition fees in Turkey remain nominal.
The view held by the Council of Higher Education is that higher education is a semi-public service with an associated cost that must be partly borne by those benefiting from it. The Council stresses that in order to reconcile quantity with quality a healthy competitive environment must be created in the provision of this service, whereby state and private universities in Turkey will compete not only among themselves, but also with universities abroad.
II. Estimated Expenses of Higher Education
Turkey
Higher Education Expenses Borne by Parents and Students
First Degree, Academic Year 1999-00
[National
currency Turkish Lira converted to $US
by 2000 PPP of $1 = TL 272,836*]
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Low Public: Distance education program
of Open University, living at home with parents.
Moderate Public: Humanities and Social Sciences program,
and students residing at state dormitories.
High public: High cost programs, i.e. medical sciences,
state conservatories, and students residing at either private dormitories
or shared apartments.
Average Private (Bilkent University data): Tuition is
fixed for all programs. Students living in double-room dormitories on
campus. (Tuition and lodging are determined in dollar amounts by the
university).
* OECD (January,
2001). Purchasing Power Parities. Main Economic Indicators.
http://www.oecd.org/std/ppp1.pdf
References
1 History of Turkish Education. The Turkish Council of Higher Education (YOK) web site. http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/history.html
2 Higher Education. The Turkish Council of Higher Education (YOK) web site. http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/outline.html
3 UNESCO (1999a), and Barro and Lee (1994). Gross Enrollment Ratios.
4 The Turkish Higher Education System Current Status. The Turkish Council of Higher Education (YOK) web site. http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/current.html
5 The Turkish Higher Education System-Governance. The Turkish Council of Higher Education (YOK) web site. http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/governance.html
6 Turkish Daily News. (June 15, 1999). University Fees Rise 60 Percent. Education News from Turkey. The Turkish Council of Higher Education (YOK) web site. http://www.yok.gov.tr/webeng/news/june15.html
7 Bilkent University Web site (2000). http://www.bilkent.edu.tr/bilkent/academic/fees/fees.html
HHM/BJ 10/15/01
