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I. A Brief Description of the Higher Education System in Ethiopia
The first higher education institution in Ethiopia, the University College of Addis Ababa, was established in 1950. In spite of the country's need to expand the higher education sector, little progress was made in the subsequent 50 years. Until 1995, for example, there were only two public universities and sixteen affiliated and independent junior colleges in the country. Recently, following the government's decentralization effort to expand the higher education system in regional states, four more universities were added increasing the total number of universities to six. The universities are: Addis Ababa University, Alemaya University, Bahir Dar University, Mekele University, Jimma University and Debub University. Among these, Addis Ababa University is the leviation as it accounts for about 42 percent of the regular and 39 percent of the continuing education enrollment (MOE, 1998).
Included among post secondary establishments are also fourteen teacher-training institutions with an average enrollment of 55 students each. These institutions are responsible for training prospective teachers for first cycle primary education (grades 1 through 4) for the duration of one year. The higher education system also includes post secondary professional training institutes, such as the nursing school, bank and insurance institute and the Ethiopian Airlines Pilots and technicians training centers. The total enrolment of all of these is below 1,000 (Habtamu, 2000).
Since 1998, five private colleges have been created offering programs for a two-year diploma (Zewdu, 2000). In the 1999/2000 academic year, 8,376 students were enrolled in private colleges, accounting for 12.4 percent of total enrollment in higher education (MOE, 2000). Some of the private colleges have started programs for a bachelor's degree, with the hope that they will secure accreditation eventually.
The total number of students in regular degree programs increased from 9,367 in 1994/95 to 19,957 in 1998/99 and in regular diploma programs from 5,881 to 6,524 in the same period. Despite these increases, it has been estimated that the gross enrollment ratio in higher education in the years 1995/96 -1999/2000 falls between 1.0 and 0.5 percent with significant gender disparities (MOE, 2000).
While a new policy calls for admission to higher education on the basis of entrance examinations held by individual higher education institutions, students continue to be selected and assigned a university on the basis of the Ethiopian school leaving certificate examination (ESCLCE), which is offered at the completion of grade twelve. In principle, applicants are expected to have over 2.0 GPA in ESCLE in 5 subjects (including English and Math) to quality for admission into higher education. In practice, however, the GPA cut off point is determined by the space available and the number of applicants each academic year. As a result, access is reserved to the exceptionally few high achievers who represent less than one-fifth of eligible candidates. In addition, the odds are that students from well-organized public or private secondary schools in metropolitan areas have the highest chance of success, further reducing the opportunity for tertiary education among the rural and low-income groups.
Given the small number of openings in the regular program relative to the demand, continuing education remains among the few options left for most students who completed their secondary education. Higher education institutions in Ethiopia run evening and summer programs to address those students not admissible through the regular program. As per the 1998/99 Educational Abstract of the Ministry of Education, there were 22,585 students pursuing their studies (both degree and diploma) through this arrangement, accounting for 35 percent of overall enrollment in the country.
The major clientele of evening programs are either civil servants who intend to upgrade their qualifications or those who have been denied admission to the regular programs. An evening degree generally takes approximately 6 years to complete, while the evening diploma can be completed in 3 to 4 years. The summer (or Kiremt) arrangement is basically designed to upgrade the qualifications of primary and secondary school teachers. A five-summer session is needed to complete a bachelor's degree, while a diploma program takes only three summers.
While being less demanding than the regular degree program, the evening program is still competitive and involves a GPA cut off point for screening applicants. The screening procedure further serves to assign students to particular fields of study once their admission has been approved. Business (accounting, engineering, economics and management), law and information studies are highly preferred fields and entrance in them, therefore, requires a highly competitive GPA. Most evening programs do not provide courses in the natural sciences, pharmacology and medicine.
Financing Higher Education
In the years following the introduction of university education in Ethiopia,
students participating in regular programs were provided with free room
and board and were given pocket money. In spite of the profound changes
in the socio-economic fabric of society, the tradition of free higher
education has been maintained with students' living and instructional
costs coming out of the public purse; only the pocket money has disappeared.
Students enrolled in summer programs have their tuition and living expenses
(with the exception of some miscellaneous costs including laundry and
occasional transportation) covered by their employer, the Ministry of
Education. Students enrolled in evening programs, on the other hand,
have to pay substantial tuition and cover their own living costs.
On average, it is reported that about 12 percent of the education budget goes to higher education, compared to 65 percent to primary, 17 percent to secondary and 4 percent to other aspects of education (MOE, 1998). Of this, more than 40 percent is used to cover faculty and staff salaries. While its allocation from the education budget is relatively small, the unit cost of higher education is higher than the costs for primary and secondary education. According to the 1999/2000 report of the Planning and Programming Department of the Ministry of Education, for example, the unit cost for higher education is 5,250 Birr (US$3,500) compared to Birr 123 (US$82) and Birr 255 (US$170) for primary and secondary education respectively. The high unit cost aside, the recurrent budget for higher education is continuing to increase over time and constitutes a heavy financial burden on the government. The recurrent budgets for the years 1996/7, 1997/8 and 1998/9 were US$65million, US$97million and US$133 million respectively.
While less significant, some assistance to higher education also comes from various UN agencies and bilateral donors. Some of these agencies that finance the system through grants, experts, scholarships and consultancy include the UNDP, UNESCO, UNFPA, the World Bank, SAREC, USAID, SIDA and the British Council (Habtamu, 2000).
II. Estimated Expenses
of Higher Education
Ethiopia
Higher Education Expenses Borne by Parents and Students
First Degree, Academic Year 1998-99 or 1999-00
[National currency (Birr) converted to $US by 1999 purchasing power parity estimate $1 = Ethiopian Birr 1.5]
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Regular degree
program: regular undergraduate course of study living in government
supported dorms and eating in government-supported cafeterias.
Summer degree program: summer course of study (takes 5 summers),
residential with all fees and living expenses paid by employer.
Evening degree program: evening courses with fees, living at
home using food, transportation and personal expense estimates made
for the private diploma program as this data is not formally available
for students in evening programs.
Low Private: low private tuition for diploma course of study,
living at home.
References:
Central Statistical Authority (1997). The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia: Results at Country Level, Addis Ababa, CSA.
IER (2000). "A Proposal to Establish a National Center for Higher Education", Addis Ababa University (Unpublished Manuscript).
Habtamu, Wondimu (2000). Higher Education in Ethiopia: Retrospects, Prospects and Challenges: A Chapter Presented for the Handbook of Higher Education in Africa, copy prior to publication.
Johnstone, Bruce (2001). The Financing and Politics of Cost Sharing in Higher Education, Center for Comparative and Global Studies in Education, University at Buffalo.
Johnstone, Bruce (2001). Response to Austerity: The Imperatives and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher Education, Center for Comparative and Global Studies in Education, University at Buffalo.
Ministry of Education (1999). Education Sector Development Program: Action Plan, Addis Ababa, Central Printing Press.
Ministry of Education (2000). Educational Statistics Annual Abstract, Addis Ababa, Brihanina Selam Printing Enterprise.
Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1994). Education and Training Policy, Addis Ababa: EMPDA.
Zewdu Desta (2001). The Emerging Private Higher Education Institutions of Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa University (Unpublished Master's Thesis).
Ziderman, A., Albrecht, D. (1995). Financing Universities in Developing Countries, Washington, DC, the Flamer Press.
AA/PM
10/10/01
