Overview
After a review of the volumes of existing literature and research regarding studies related to the progression toward and completion of academic post-secondary degrees, one quickly begins to see several topical patterns emerge.  For the purposes of this review, I am categorizing various literature abstracts within the following groups outlined below.  These groupings or categories are intended to provide some degree of conceptual framework on the current state of thinking on the subject and related well to the array of studies available for the convenience of researchers in pursuit of study on the subject.  While it would be easy to develop numerous groupings in response to the wide variety of topics studied and related to the subject, one can conceptualize the spectrum within six general categories.

The following categories are designed to group the array of literature abstracts into only a few categories, helpful in developing a cursory view of how the literature breaks down:

1. Descriptive / Logistical: Literature in this grouping includes simple descriptive statistics from various existing databases that attempt to describe profiles or patterns of student progression toward various forms of achievements as defined by graduation, GPA, endurance, balance of workloads, etc.  These are often extrapolated from existing student records systems on one or more campuses.  This would include government studies where meta-databases are analyzed from data collected from institutional reporting to federal agencies and organizations.

2. Retention / Attrition: These are studies conducted specifically to examine problems or concerns in the enrollment pipeline at one or more institutions.  Typically the topic will study specific cohort groups (females, Hispanics, engineers, etc.) and will look for influential or causal factors related to the retention or attrition of students during the course of academic degree attainment.  For the purposes of providing easily definable distinctions among the categories, these studies typically look at existing institutional database information and sometimes include survey instrument data.  There is then an attempt to look for correlations between variables, factors bearing statistical significance, or causal relationships.

3. Work, Career and Workload: Literature in this category specifically attempts to examine the influence of work and workload on academic progression, adjustment to the learning environment, quality of learning, etc.

4. Sociological, Psychological, Behavioral and Environmental: There is a large body of literature and research on how student behaviors, social adjustment, campus environment, motivation, effort, self-discipline, etc. and their influence on student success in academic progression and learning.

5. Effectivity, Productivity, Time and Cost: With the cost of higher education continuing to rise rapidly, the dictum of attaining a college degree in order to have a lucrative career, public pressure on government entities to control cost escalation and the quality of education, there is a mounting volume of literature and research on the issue of time to complete a college degree, its cost, and the productivity of learning.

Lingrell,  Scot A. (1992). "Student outcomes assessment: The Senior Survey."  Eric Document ED351897.
   Abstract: This paper reviews recent literature pertaining to outcomes assessment, especially college senior surveys, and provides background information on several successful studies documenting the effectiveness of outcomes assessment.  Specific student outcome assessments are reviewed from the University of Maryland, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Stanford University, Harvard University, Kean College, Kent State University, Bowling Green State University, and Ohio University.  Essential elements of outcomes assessments as found from the literature  review suggest that faculty be involved in controlling the assessment, that presidential backing is required, that several methods of assessment are needed to fully understand the undergraduate experience, and that it is important to assess senior year students.  School program analysis revealed that each contained a section questioning students about the campus environment, that all surveys had background information sections, and that all of them asked for the seniors' overall assessment of their university experiences.  The report provides a model of a senior year survey.
 

Pace, C. Robert & Swayze, Susan. (1992). "College student experiences questionnaire: Norms for the Third Edition, 1990. Part One: Tentative norms for the 1990s. Part Two: Comparable responses from the 1980s.  Part Three. Bibliography and psychometric supplement to the CSEQ, Third Edition, 1990." Eric Document Reproduction Services ED414860.
    Abstract: This document presents tentative 1990-91 norms for the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ).  The norms for are based on student (n=20,513) questionnaires which gathered data from 18 doctoral universities, 21 general liberal arts colleges, 19 comprehensive colleges and universities, and 5 highly selective liberal arts colleges.  Data are broken down by type of institution and cover various student characteristics including demographics, year in college, and major.  Data for student rankings by type of institution cover: student use of college library facilities, student interactions with faculty members; course learning; art, music and theater experiences; the student union; athletic and recreational activities; clubs and other groups; experiences in reading / writing and science; personal experiences; student acquaintances; campus residence experiences; conversation topics; opinions about the college environment and about benefits from attending college.  Data are also included on student progress toward reaching 23 stated goals.
 

Andero, Abraham. (1992). "The academic performance of Mississippi Community/Junior College transfer students at the University Southern Mississippi." Eric Document Reproduction Services ED399859.
  Abstract. This report presents selected findings from the 1993-94 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study First Follow-up survey.  The report found that only 36 percent of 1992-93 bachelor's degree recipients completed their degree within 4 years of beginning post-secondary education.  Students who delayed their entry into post-secondary education took longer to complete their degree, as did those who began post-secondary at a less-than-4-year institution.  The first section presents a brief profile of the study's nationally represented sample of 10,080 recipients of bachelor's degrees at 648 institutions in 1992-93, including gender and race, age at degree receipt, degree-granting institution, and point of entry into post-secondary education.  The second section presents an analysis of the amount of time taken to complete the degree completion, interruptions in enrollment, time between entry into post-secondary education and bachelor's degree completion, gender and race, timing of entry and preparation for college, institutions attended, major field of study, and debt.  The compendium provides detailed tables and describes the employment and enrollment experiences of this population in the year after graduation.

Kerka, Sandra. (1995). "Adult learner revisited." Eric Document Reproduction Services ED389880.
    Abstract: Adult learner retention continues to hold the attention of adult educators in every type of program.  Although the reasons students leave and the strategies for keeping them may differ from adult basic education (ABE) to higher education, the goal of retention is the same: to keep learners in programs until they achieve their goals (Tracy-Mumford, et al., 1994).  In any program, adults are largely voluntary participants, but the student role is just one of many roles and responsibilities competing for their time and attention.  In fact, personal reasons such as family problems, lack of child care, and job demands are often cited as the cause of withdrawal.  At the same time, adults usually have pragmatic, focused reasons for participating and will leave whenever they feel their goals have been met or if they feel the program will not satisfy their goals.  Personal/job factors may seem to be beyond institutional control, whereas program satisfaction is something educators can improve.  This Digest provides an updated look at research on retention in adult education and suggests effective practices for different settings.
 

Cuccaro-Alamin, Stephanie. (1997). "Post-Secondary Persistence and Attainment. Findings from "The Condition of Education, 1997," N. 13." Eric Document ED412859.
    Abstract: This booklet summarizes data on the persistence and attainment outcomes of students in post-secondary education and the enrollment factors related to these outcomes.  The primary data describe students, as of 1994, who began their post-secondary education in the 1989-90 academic year.  Additional data describe post-secondary education experiences of 1980 high school sophomores 10 years after their expected graduation and the experiences of 16- to 24- year olds from the 1970s to the 1990s.  Generally, the evidence suggests: that students who attend school part time and work full time are less likely to complete their degree in a timely fashion than full-time students; that students enrolling in a 4-year institution immediately following high school are more likely to attain a bachelor's degree within five years than students taking other routes; and that bachelor's degree seekers who did or did not receive financial aid persisted and attained at similar rates.  The report's major findings are reported in sections on: post-secondary access, post-secondary outcomes, degree objective, type of institution, timing of enrollment, enrollment intensity and continuity, financial aid, and working while enrolled.
 

"The completion of educational programs in a timely manner. Report submitted to the Higher Education Conducting Board." (1990). Eric Document ED372798.
  Abstract: In response to legislative mandate intended to curb a national trend toward students taking longer than the traditional two- and four-year time frame to complete educational degrees, the Minnesota State Board for Community Colleges conducted a study of factors in this trend; options for encouraging students to carry full credit loads; and non financial impediments to timely completion.  Factors mandated for study by the state and examined by the Board included: (1) tuition banding, which allows students at certain registration levels to take higher credit loads without paying additional tuition; (2) unavailability of courses; (3) expanded program requirements; (4) lack of student preparation; and (5) such changes in values and attitudes as financial concerns and the desire for broader educational experience.  In addition, the Board examined differences in registration and enrollment among students, institutional treatment of different categories of students, and student advising, finding that while differences in treatment do not seem to affect completion rates, implementation of a new Computer Assisted Advising System will provide students and the colleges with more complete information about requirements and progress toward completion.  While such improvements in the advising process represent one institutional option for influencing students' time to program completion, the Board found that other factors such as students educational objectives and enrollment patterns were generally beyond the control of the system and the colleges.

Chambers, Ellie. (1992). "Work-load and the quality of student learning." Studies in Higher Education, v17 n2 p.141-53.
    Abstract: This paper argues that a precondition for good studying and learning in undergraduate study is a reasonable student workload.  Ways in which workload can be measured, in advance of presentation, are outlined.  Suggestions on how to regulate student workload and some implications for curriculum and course design are presented.
 

Aper, Jeffery P. (1994). "An investigation of the relationship between student work experience and student outcomes." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Eric Document Reproduction Services ED375750.
  Abstract. This study examined the effect of student work experience on college outcomes, surveying 155 sophomores, juniors, and seniors at two higher education institutions: a small liberal arts college with a work-study emphasis and a large public university with a strong history of work-study programs.  Data were collected using the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ).  The study found that, in general, students who worked in academic or career-related jobs on campus reported higher levels of effort and involvement in a range of areas measured by the CSEQ than students who worked under other circumstances, including use of the library, interactions with the faculty, involvement in learning through coursework, writing experiences and activities, and other curricular and extracurricular activities.  Specific effects of each area and type of institution are discussed.  Students who worked in academic or career-related jobs on campus showed higher estimates of some areas of college gains than students working under other circumstances.
 
 

McCormick, Alexander C. (1997). "Changes in educational aspirations after high school: The role of post-secondary attendance and context." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education. Eric Document Reproduction Services ED415808.
  Abstract: This study used longitudinal data from the High School and Beyond study to examine how individuals' educational expectations change after high school, especially as related to post-secondary education.  Data were from a nationally representative sample of high school seniors in 1980 and follow-up four years later.  The dependent variable was students' expectation of amount of schooling.  Independent variables included demographic characteristics, occupational expectations, parental support, duration of college plans, high school preparation, academic ability, high school grades, type of post-secondary institution attended, institutional selectivity, first enrollment as a full- or part-time student, and whether post-secondary enrollment was immediate or delayed after high school.  Analysis indicated that change in educational expectations reflects two underlying dynamics: resilience, which contributes to stability of expectations; and isomorphism, which motivates adaptation.  Among the specific findings were: any form of engagement in post-secondary education maintained or increased bachelor's degree expectations (though this was significantly less for students who attended two-year institutions); early expectations retained an independent effect; delayed entry and part-time attendance exhibited independent, depressant effects on educational expectations; women were less likely to maintain high expectations; and students at highly selective institutions were most likely to aspire to completing a graduate or professional degree.
 

Talbot, Gilles L. (1996). "Self-regulated learning, effort awareness and management in college students: Are they aware of how they act on learning tasks and their learning skills?" Eric Document Reproduction Services ED391798.
    Abstract: With a view to understanding developmental education, this project studied 100 college students at Champlain-Saint Lawrence College (Quebec) to measure their motivations and perceptions of ability and to see how different types of students responded to assistance.  Students with a learning orientation (LO), who viewed ability as derived principally from effort, were aware of their attitudes and behaviors.  Goal oriented (GO) students, who saw ability as based on innate capacity rather than the result of effort, were aware that they tended to be deficient in the same variables as learning oriented students.  Helping students achieve academically through peer counselors, workshops, ungraded formative feedback, and re-attributional training to "work smarter not harder" were not equally helpful to both types of students.  LO students tended to make use of these resources and were motivated to examine and reflect on the learning tasks and their learning skills.  GO students were less interested in examining their strategies for learning.  By mid-term, LO and GO students remained stable, and students' perceptions of their learning skills had not changed.  GO students, unlike LO students, had not made the necessary adjustments between demands from learning tasks and modifying learning strategies.  Helping empower students, especially the GOs to engage in purposeful effort, as opposed to false or avoidance effort, may require teachers to do two things: first, to re-examine the manner of assigning and justifying academic tasks; and second, to find ways of dealing with students who do not make realistic efforts to accomplish reasonably difficult tasks.
 

Arnold, James C. & others. (1991). "The influence of student effort, college environments and selected student characteristics on undergraduate student learning and professional development at metropolitan institutions." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education. Eric Document Reproduction Services ED339296.
  Abstract: This study sought to measure what factors contribute to the learning and personal development of traditional and new majority students at six metropolitan institutions: University of Alabama, Birmingham; University of Louisville; Wichita State University; Cleveland State University; and University of Toledo.  The study used the College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ) to solicit information on student effort (involvement), student perception of their campus environment, and how much students believe they have gained in certain areas.  Demographic information was also obtained on year-in-school, age, and enrollment status.  The total number of subjects was 3,084.  Results of factor analysis suggested the following conclusions: (1) learning gains of traditional age full-time students and new majority students are affected by institutional environmental factors and student involvement factors; (2) learning gains are influenced by age and enrollment status; (3) age and enrollment status interact with each other and with involvement and environment factors to affect gains in learning and personal development.

"Time to degree completion: A system-wide survey of Oklahoma college and university students." (1996). Eric Document Reproduction Services ED416794.
    Abstract: A study investigated bachelor's degree completion times and related factors for students in Oklahoma higher education institutions.  Data were drawn from survey information on 1,399 college freshmen in 1995 and cohort data on the entire freshmen population of 37,059 in 1988.  Analyses focus on comparison of students' expected and actual time-to-degree (by age, race, gender, and institution type) and other factors of interest in time-to-degree (student employment, advanced placement courses, College Level Examination Program, course load, and transfer).  A separate section discusses factors that may negatively impact time-to-degree not examined in this study (changing majors, extracurricular activities, financial aid, and remediation).  Recommendations concerning time-to-degree issues culled from other state and institutional studies are also examined, and this study's recommendations are presented.
 

Dallet, Patrick & Opper, John H. (1997). "Reducing time-to-degree with distance learning: Are we closer now than when we started?" New Directions for Community Colleges, v25 n3 p.43-51.
  Abstract: Describes the Improving Access Through Technology (IATT) project conducted by the Florida Post-secondary Planning Commission which attempts to use technology to increase student access to courses, thereby decreasing time to degree.  Identifies student difficulty with math and science courses as a primary cause of lengthening time to degree.
 

Armstrong, William B. & Barnes, Randall. (1994). "Time to degree study: An analysis of enrollment patterns for Spring 1992 Associate degree recipients." Eric Document Reproduction Services ED366362.
    Abstract: To measure the amount of time it takes to earn an Associate of Arts degree at the Sam Diego Community College District, a study was undertaken of the number of years and number of semesters graduating students at three district colleges had been enrolled.  A random sample of 300 students was drawn from the 1,130 students graduating in June 1992, and information was collected on student characteristics; educational objectives; the first term and the number of terms enrolled; whether students stopped-out; and the number of units attempted, earned, and transferred from another institution.  Study findings included the following: (1) the 107 students who had not transferred units from other institutions took an average of 5.8 years to earn the degree, while students with transferred units took 6.6 years; (2) for all students, the mean number of terms taken to earn the degree was 11.1, with a minimum of 2 terms (n=2) and a maximum of 49 (n=1); (3) the average age of the graduating sample was 30.9, compared to 29.3 years of age for the spring 1992 student body; (4) the number of years taken to earn a degree varied by ethnicity, ranging from an average of 4.6 years for African Americans to 8.6 years for Latinos; and (5) women took an average of 6.45 years to earn their degree, versus 6.2 for men.

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